An adhesive, or glue, is a mixture In chemistry, a mixture is a material system made up by two or more different substances which are together but are not combined chemically. Mixture refers to the physical combination of two or more substances the identities of which are retained. The molecules of two or more different substances are mixed in the form of alloys, solutions, in a liquid Liquid is one of the three classical states of matter. Like a gas, a liquid is able to flow and take the shape of a container, but, like a solid, it resists compression. Unlike a gas, a liquid does not disperse to fill every space of a container, and maintains a fairly constant density. A distinctive property of the liquid state is surface tension, or semi-liquid state that adheres Adhesion is any attraction process between dissimilar molecular species that can potentially bring them in "direct contact".[clarification needed] By contrast cohesion takes place between similar molecules or bonds items together. Adhesives may come from either natural or synthetic In chemistry, chemical synthesis is purposeful execution of chemical reactions to get a product, or several products. This happens by physical and chemical manipulations usually involving one or more reactions. In modern laboratory usage, this tends to imply that the process is reproducible, reliable, and established to work in multiple sources. The types of materials that can be bonded are vast but they are especially useful for bonding thin materials. Adhesives cure Curing is a term in polymer chemistry and process engineering that refers to the toughening or hardening of a polymer material by cross-linking of polymer chains, brought about by chemical additives, ultraviolet radiation, electron beam or heat. In rubber, the curing process is also called vulcanization (harden) by either evaporating a solvent or by chemical reactions that occur between two or more constituents.[1][2]

Adhesives are an advantageous for joining thin or dissimilar materials, minimizing weight, and when a vibration dampening joint is needed.[3] A disadvantage to adhesives is that they do not form an instantaneous joint, unlike most other joining processes, because the adhesive needs time to cure.[4]

The earliest known date for a simple glue is 200,000 BC[5] and for a compound glue 70,000 BC.[6]

Contents

History

The oldest known adhesive, dated to approximately 200,000 BC, is from spear stone flakes glued to a wood with birch-bark-tar, which was found in central Italy.[5] The use of compound glues to haft stone spears into wood dates back to round 70,000 BC. Evidence for this has been found in Sibudu Cave, South Africa and the compound glues used were made from plant gum and red ochre Ochre or Ocher is term for both a golden-yellow or light yellow brown color and for a form of earth pigment which produces the color. The pigment can also be used to create a reddish tint known as Red ochre. The more rarely used terms Purple ochre and Brown ochre also exist for variant hues. Because of these other hues, the color Ochre is.[6] The Tyrolean Iceman Ötzi the Iceman (pronounced [ˈœtsi] ), and Similaun Man are modern names of a well-preserved natural mummy of a man from about 3300 BC (53 centuries ago). The mummy was found in September of 1991 in the Schnalstal glacier in the Ötztal Alps, near Hauslabjoch on the border between Austria and Italy. The nickname comes from Ötztal (Ötz valley), had weapons fixed together with the aid of glue.[7]

6000-year-old ceramics show evidence of adhesives based upon animal glues An animal glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged boiling of animal connective tissue made by rendering animal products such as horse teeth. During the times of Babylonia Babylon was a city-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which are found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad. All that remains of the original ancient famed city of Babylon today is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between, tar-like glue was used for gluing statues. The Egyptians Egyptians is the name of the nationality and the Mediterranean North African ethnic group native to Egypt made much use of animal glues An animal glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged boiling of animal connective tissue to adhere furniture, ivory Ivory is formed from dentine and constitutes the bulk of the teeth and tusks of animals such as the elephant, hippopotamus, walrus, mammoth and narwhal, and papyrus Papyrus is a thick paper-like material produced from the pith of the papyrus plant, Cyperus papyrus, a wetland sedge that was once abundant in the Nile Delta of Egypt. The Mongols Tibetan Buddhism and Shamanism also used adhesives to make their short bows, and the Native Americans Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from North America now encompassed by the continental United States, including parts of Alaska and the island state of Hawaii. They comprise a large number of distinct tribes, states, and ethnic groups, many of which survive as intact political communities. The terminology used to of the eastern United States used a mixture of spruce A spruce is a tree of the genus Picea , a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and boreal (taiga) regions of the earth. Spruces are large trees, from 20–60 metres (66–200 ft) tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their whorled branches and conical form. The gum and fat as adhesives to fashion waterproof seams in their birchbark Birch bark or birchbark is generally understood to be the bark of the Paper Birch tree , or sometimes of related species such as Gray (Wire) Birch (Betula populifolia) canoes A canoe or Canadian canoe (British English) is a small narrow boat, typically human-powered, though it may also be powered by sails or small electric or gas motors. Canoes usually are pointed at both bow and stern and are normally open on top, but can be decked over (i.e. covered, similar to a kayak).

In medieval The Middle Ages is a period of European history from the 5th century to the 15th century. The period followed the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476, and preceded the Early Modern Era. It is the middle period in a three-period division of history: Classical, Medieval, and Modern. The term "Middle Ages" (medium aevum) was coined in Europe, egg whites were used as glue to decorate parchments Parchment is a thin material made from calfskin, sheepskin or goatskin, often split. Its most common use was as a material for writing on, for documents, notes, or the pages of a book, codex or manuscript. It is distinct from leather in that parchment is limed but not tanned, therefore it is very reactive with changes in relative humidity and is with gold leaf Metal leaf, also called composition leaf or schlagmetal, is a thin foil used for decoration. Metal leaf can come in many different shades. Some metal leaf may look like gold leaf but not contain any real gold. This metal leaf is often referred to as imitation leaf. The first actual glue factory was founded in Holland in the early 1700s. In the 1750s, the English introduced fish glue. As the modern world evolved, several other patented materials, such as bones, starch, fish, and casein Casein is the predominant phosphoprotein (αS1, αS2, β, κ) that accounts for nearly 80% of proteins in cow milk and cheese. Milk-clotting proteases act on the soluble portion of the caseins, K-Casein, thus originating an unstable micellar state that results in clot formation. When coagulated with chymosin, casein is sometimes called paracasein, were introduced as alternative materials for glue manufacture. Modern glues have improved flexibility, toughness, curing rate, and chemical resistance.

In the late 1800s in Switzerland, casein Casein is the predominant phosphoprotein (αS1, αS2, β, κ) that accounts for nearly 80% of proteins in cow milk and cheese. Milk-clotting proteases act on the soluble portion of the caseins, K-Casein, thus originating an unstable micellar state that results in clot formation. When coagulated with chymosin, casein is sometimes called paracasein was first used as a wood glue. Today, it is seen to be used to glue grocery bags.[8]

Types

See also: List of glues

Adhesives are typically organized by the method of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to if the adhesive chemically reacts A chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. Chemical reactions can be either spontaneous, requiring no input of energy, or non-spontaneous, often coming about only after the input of some type of energy, viz. heat, light or electricity. Classically, chemical reactions encompass to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by whether the raw stock is of natural, or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase In the physical sciences, a phase is a region of space , throughout which all physical properties of a material are essentially uniform. Examples of physical properties include density, index of refraction, and chemical composition. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct, and (.

Non-reactive adhesives

Pressure sensitive adhesives

The following text needs to be harmonized with text in Pressure sensitive adhesive Pressure sensitive adhesive is adhesive which forms a bond when pressure is applied to marry the adhesive with the adherend. No solvent, water, or heat is needed to activate the adhesive. It is used in pressure sensitive tapes, labels, note pads, automobile trim, and a wide variety of other products.
Main article: Pressure sensitive adhesive Pressure sensitive adhesive is adhesive which forms a bond when pressure is applied to marry the adhesive with the adherend. No solvent, water, or heat is needed to activate the adhesive. It is used in pressure sensitive tapes, labels, note pads, automobile trim, and a wide variety of other products

Pressure sensitive adhesives (PSA) form a bond by the application of light pressure to marry the adhesive with the adherend. They are designed with a balance between flow and resistance to flow. The bond forms because the adhesive is soft enough to flow (i.e. "wet") the adherend. The bond has strength because the adhesive is hard enough to resist flow when stress is applied to the bond. Once the adhesive and the adherend are in close proximity, molecular interactions, such as van der Waals forces In physical chemistry, the van der Waals force , named after Dutch scientist Johannes Diderik van der Waals, is the attractive or repulsive force between molecules (or between parts of the same molecule) other than those due to covalent bonds or to the electrostatic interaction of ions with one another or with neutral molecules. The term includes:, become involved in the bond, contributing significantly to its ultimate strength.

PSAs are designed for either permanent or removable applications. Examples of permanent applications include safety labels for power equipment, foil tape for HVAC duct work, automotive interior trim assembly, and sound/vibration damping films. Some high performance permanent PSAs exhibit high adhesion values and can support kilograms of weight per square centimeter of contact area, even at elevated temperature. Permanent PSAs may be initially removable (for example to recover mislabeled goods) and build adhesion to a permanent bond after several hours or days.

Removable adhesives are designed to form a temporary bond, and ideally can be removed after months or years without leaving residue on the adherend. Removable adhesives are used in applications such as surface protection films, masking tapes, bookmark and note papers, price marking labels, promotional graphics materials, and for skin contact (wound care dressings, EKG electrodes, athletic tape, analgesic and transdermal drug patches, etc.). Some removable adhesives are designed to repeatedly stick and unstick. They have low adhesion and generally can not support much weight.

Pressure sensitive adhesives are manufactured with either a liquid carrier or in 100% solid form. Articles are made from liquid PSAs by coating the adhesive and drying off the solvent or water carrier. They may be further heated to initiate a cross-linking Cross-links are bonds that link one polymer chain to another. They can be covalent bonds or ionic bonds. "Polymer chains" can refer to synthetic polymers or natural polymers . When the term "cross-linking" is used in the synthetic polymer science field, it usually refers to the use of cross-links to promote a difference in the reaction and increase molecular weight The molecular mass of a substance is the mass of one molecule of that substance, in unified atomic mass unit(s) u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one isotope of carbon-12). This is numerically equivalent to the relative molecular mass of a molecule, frequently referred to by the term molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, which is the ratio of the. 100% solid PSAs may be low viscosity polymers that are coated and then reacted with radiation to increase molecular weight and form the adhesive; or they may be high viscosity materials that are heated to reduce viscosity enough to allow coating, and then cooled to their final form. Major raw material for PSA´s are acrylate The acrylate ion is the ion of acrylic acid. Acrylates are the salts and esters of acrylic acid. They are also known as propenoates (since acrylic acid is also known as 2-propenoic acid) based polymers.

Contact adhesives

Contact adhesives are used in strong bonds with high shear-resistance like laminates A laminate is a material that can be constructed by uniting two or more layers of material together. The process of creating a laminate is lamination, which in common parlance refers to the placing of something between layers of plastic and glueing them with heat and/or pressure, usually with an adhesive. However, in electrical engineering,, such as bonding Formica Formica is a brand of composite materials manufactured by the Formica Corporation based in Cincinnati, Ohio. In common use, the term refers to the company's classic product, a heat-resistant, wipe-clean, plastic laminate of paper or fabric with melamine resin to a wooden counter, and in footwear Footwear consists of garments worn on the feet, for fashion, protection against the environment, and adornment. Poor people in impoverished or third world groups often do not wear footwear. Religious requirements may prohibit footwear, as in attaching outsoles to uppers.

Natural rubber Natural rubber is an elastomer that was originally derived from a milky colloidal suspension, or latex, found in the sap of some plants. The purified form of natural rubber is the chemical polyisoprene, which can also be produced synthetically. Natural rubber is used extensively in many applications and products, as is synthetic rubber and polychloroprene Neoprene or polychloroprene is a family of synthetic rubbers that are produced by polymerization of chloroprene. Neoprene in general has good chemical stability, and maintains flexibility over a wide temperature range. It is used in a wide variety of applications, such as laptop sleeves, orthopedic braces , electrical insulation, liquid and sheet (Neoprene) are commonly used contact adhesives. Both of these elastomers undergo strain crystallization Strain crystallization is a phenomenon in which an initially amorphous solid material undergoes a phase transformation due to the application of strain. Strain crystallization occurs in natural rubber, and some other elastomers. The phenomenon has important effects on strength and fatigue properties.

Contact adhesives must be applied to both surfaces and allowed some time to dry before the two surfaces are pushed together. Some contact adhesives require as long as 24 hours to dry before the surfaces are to be held together.[9] Once the surfaces are pushed together, the bond forms very quickly.[10] It is usually not necessary to apply pressure for a long time, so there is less need for clamps A clamp is a fastening device to hold or secure objects tightly together to prevent movement or separation through the application of inward pressure. In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term cramp is often used instead when the tool is for temporary use for positioning components during construction and woodworking; thus a G cramp or a sash.

Hot adhesives

A glue gun, an example of a hot adhesive Main article: Hot melt adhesive Hot Melt Glue is a form of thermoplastic adhesive that is commonly supplied in solid cylindrical sticks of various diameters, designed to be melted in an electric hot glue gun. The gun uses a continuous-duty heating element to melt the plastic glue, which may be pushed through the gun by a trigger mechanism, or directly by the user. The glue

Hot adhesives, also known as hot melt adhesives, are simply thermoplastics A thermoplastic, also known as thermosoftening plastic, is a polymer that turns to a liquid when heated and freezes to a very glassy state when cooled sufficiently. Most thermoplastics are high-molecular-weight polymers whose chains associate through weak Van der Waals forces ; stronger dipole-dipole interactions and hydrogen bonding (nylon); or applied in molten form (in the 65-180 C range) which solidify on cooling to form strong bonds between a wide range of materials. These adhesives are popular for crafts because of their ease of use and the wide range of common materials they can join. A glue gun (shown at right) is one method of applying hot adhesives. The glue gun melts the solid adhesive then allows the liquid to pass through its barrel onto the material, where it solidifies.

Thermoplastic glue may have been invented around 1940 by Procter & Gamble Procter & Gamble Co. is a Fortune 500 American multinational corporation headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio. that manufactures a wide range of consumer goods. As of 2008, P&G is the 8th largest corporation in the world by market capitalization and 14th largest US company by profit. In early 2010, P&G reached 4th largest corporation in as a solution to water-based adhesives commonly used in packaging at that time failing in humid climates, causing packages to open and become damaged.

Drying adhesives

There are two types of adhesives that harden by drying: solvent based adhesives and polymer dispersion adhesives, also known as emulsion adhesives.

Solvent based adhesives are a mixture of ingredients (typically polymers A polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating structural units typically connected by covalent chemical bonds. While polymer in popular usage suggests plastic, the term actually refers to a large class of natural and synthetic materials with a wide variety of properties) dissolved in a solvent A solvent is a liquid, solid, or gas that dissolves another solid, liquid, or gaseous solute, resulting in a solution that is soluble in a certain volume of solvent at a specified temperature. Common uses for organic solvents are in dry cleaning (e.g. tetrachloroethylene), as a paint thinner (e.g. toluene, turpentine), as nail polish removers and. White glue, contact adhesives and rubber cements Rubber cement is an adhesive made from elastic polymers mixed in a solvent such as acetone, hexane, heptane or benzene to keep them fluid enough to be used. This makes it part of the class of drying adhesives: as the solvents quickly evaporate, the "rubber" portion remains behind, forming a strong yet flexible bond. Often a small are members of the drying adhesive family. As the solvent evaporates, the adhesive hardens. Depending on the chemical composition of the adhesive, they will adhere to different materials to greater or lesser degrees.

Polymer dispersion adhesives are milky-white dispersions often based on polyvinyl acetate Polyvinyl acetate is a rubbery synthetic polymer with the formula (C4H6O2)n (PVA). Used extensively in the woodworking and packaging industries. Also used with fabrics and fabric-based components, and in engineered products such as loudspeaker cones.

Reactive adhesives

Multi-part adhesives

Multi-part adhesives harden by mixing two or more components which chemically react. This reaction causes polymers to cross-link into acrylics, urethanes, and epoxies.[citation needed]

One-part adhesives

One-part adhesives harden via a chemical reaction with an external energy source, such as radiation In physics, radiation describes a process in which energetic particles or waves, travel through a medium or space. There are two distinct types of radiation, ionizing and non-ionizing. The word radiation is commonly used in reference to ionizing radiation only , but it may also refer to non-ionizing radiation (i.e., radio waves, visible light), heat In physics and thermodynamics, heat is the process of energy transfer from one body or system to another due to thermal contact, which in turn is defined as an energy transfer to a body in any other way than due to work performed on the body, and moisture The moisture content is often an important aspect of foodstuffs including cheese and many dried goods such as tea where excess moisture can promote bacterial growth, decay, molding, or rotting over time.

Ultraviolet (UV) light curing adhesives, also known as light curing materials (LCM), have become popular within the manufacturing sector due to their rapid curing time and strong bond strength. Light curing adhesives can cure in as little as a second and many formulations can bond dissimilar substrates (materials) and withstand harsh temperatures. These qualities make UV curing adhesives essential to the manufacturing of items in many industrial markets such as electronics, telecommunications, medical, aerospace, glass, and optical. Unlike traditional adhesives, UV light curing adhesives not only bond materials together but they can also be used to seal and coat products. They are generally acrylic based.

Heat curing adhesives consist of a pre-made mixture of two or more components. When heat is applied the components react and cross-link. This type of adhesive includes epoxies, urethanes, and polyimides Polyimide is a polymer of imide monomers. The structure of imide is as shown. Polyimides have been in mass production since 1955. Typical monomers include pyromellitic dianhydride and 4,4'-oxydianiline.

Moisture curing adhesives cure when they react with moisture present on the substrate surface or in the air. This type of adhesive includes cyanoacrylates and urethanes.

Natural adhesives

Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable matter, starch Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by all green plants as an energy store. It is the most important carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in such staple foods as potatoes, wheat, maize , rice, and cassava (dextrin), natural resins or from animals e.g. casein or animal glue. They are often referred to as bioadhesives. One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water. Animal glues are traditionally used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by synthetic glues. Casein are mainly used in glass bottle labelling. Starch based adhesives are used in corrugated board production and paper sack production, paper tube winding, wall paper adhesives. Another form of natural adhesive is blood albumen (made from protein component of blood), which is used in the plywood industry. Animal glue remains the preferred glue of the luthier. Casein based glues are made by precipitating casein from milk protein using the acetic acid from vinegar. This forms curds, which are neutralized with a base, such as sodium bicarbonate (baking soda), to cause them to unclump and become a thicker plastic-like substance.[8]

Synthetic adhesives

Synthetic adhesives are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets. Examples of thermosetting adhesives are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate and acrylic polymers.

Application

Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and rid the bond of air bubbles.

Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes, rollers, using films or pellets, spray guns and applicator guns (e.g., caulk gun). All of these can be done manually or can be automated into a machine.

Mechanisms of adhesion

Main article: Adhesion

Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means by which it occurs.

In some cases an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.

Failure of the adhesive joint

Failure of the adhesive joint can occur in different locations

There are several factors that could contribute to the failure of two adhered surfaces. Sunlight and heat may weaken the adhesive. Solvents can deteriorate or dissolve adhesive. Physical stresses may also cause the separation of surfaces. When subjected to loading, debonding may occur at different locations in the adhesive joint. The major fracture types are the following:

Cohesive fracture

Cohesive fracture is obtained if a crack propagates in the bulk polymer which constitutes the adhesive. In this case the surfaces of both adherents after debonding will be covered by fractured adhesive. The crack may propagate in the centre of the layer or near an interface. For this last case, the cohesive fracture can be said to be “cohesive near the interface”. Most quality control standards consider a good adhesive bond to be cohesive.

Interfacial fracture

The fracture is adhesive or interfacial when debonding occurs between the adhesive and the adherent. In most cases, the occurrence of interfacial fracture for a given adhesive goes along with a smaller fracture toughness. The interfacial character of a fracture surface is usually to identify the precise location of the crack path in the interphase.

Other types of fracture

Other types of fracture include:

Design of adhesive joints

Modes of failure

As a general design rule, the material properties of the object need to be greater than the forces anticipated during its use. (i.e. geometry, loads, etc.). The engineering work will consist of having a good model to evaluate the function. For most adhesive joints, this can be achieved using fracture mechanics. Concepts such as the stress concentration factor and the strain energy release rate can be used to predict failure. In such models, the behavior of the adhesive layer itself is neglected and only the adherents are considered.

Failure will also very much depend on the opening mode of the joint.

As the loads are usually fixed, an acceptable design will result from combination of a material selection procedure and geometry modifications, if possible. In adhesively bonded structures, the global geometry and loads are fixed by structural considerations and the design procedure focuses on the material properties of the adhesive and on local changes on the geometry.

Increasing the joint resistance is usually obtained by designing its geometry so that:

Testing the resistance of the adhesive

Testing devices

A wide range of testing devices have been devised to evaluate the fracture resistance of bonded structures in pure mode I, pure mode II or in mixed mode. Most of these devices are beam type specimens. We will very shortly review the most popular:

See also

References

  1. ^ Todd, Allen & Alting 1994, p. 400
  2. ^ Lau et al. 2002, p. 1.12
  3. ^ http://www.sintef.no/content/page1____5411.aspx accessed (06-28-2010)
  4. ^ http://www.gluguru.com/About%20Bonding.htm
  5. ^ a b Mazza, P; Martini, F; Sala, B; Magi, M; Colombini, M; Giachi, G; Landucci, F; Lemorini, C et al. (2006). "A new Palaeolithic discovery: tar-hafted stone tools in a European Mid-Pleistocene bone-bearing bed". Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 1310. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.01.006.
  6. ^ a b Wadley, L; Hodgskiss, T; Grant, M (2009). "From the Cover: Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa.". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (24): 9590–4. doi:10.1073/pnas.0900957106. ISSN 0027-8424. PMID 19433786.
  7. ^ Sauter F, Jordis U, Graf A, Werther W, Varmuzahttp K. (2000). Studies in organic archaeometry I: identification of the prehistoric adhesive used by the “Tyrolean Iceman” tofix his weapons. ARKIVOC, 1:[5] 735-747
  8. ^ a b CCMR - Ask A Scientist!
  9. ^ Information about contact adhesive
  10. ^ Definition of contact adhesive on About.com

Bibliography

External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Adhesives
Look up adhesive in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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