Glycerol is an organic compound An organic compound is any member of a large class of chemical compounds whose molecules contain carbon. For historical reasons discussed below, a few types of compounds such as carbonates, simple oxides of carbon and cyanides, as well as the allotropes of carbon, are considered inorganic. The distinction between "organic" and ", also called glycerin or glycerine. It is a colorless, odorless, viscous Viscosity describes a fluid's internal resistance to flow and may be thought of as a measure of fluid friction. For example, high-viscosity felsic magma will create a tall, steep stratovolcano, because it cannot flow far before it cools, while low-viscosity mafic lava will create a wide, shallow-sloped shield volcano. All real fluids have some liquid that is widely used in pharmaceutical formulations Pharmaceutical formulation, in pharmaceutics, is the process in which different chemical substances, including the active drug, are combined to produce a final medicinal product. Glycerol has three hydrophilic Hydrophiles, from the Greek "water" and φιλια (philia) "bonding," refers to a physical property of a molecule that can transiently bond with water (H2O) through hydrogen bonding. This is thermodynamically favorable, and makes these molecules soluble not only in water, but also in other polar solvents. There are hydrophilic hydroxyl groups In chemistry, hydroxyl is a compound containing an oxygen atom bound covalently with a hydrogen atom. The neutral form of this group is a hydroxyl radical. The hydroxyl anion is called hydroxide; it is a diatomic ion with a single negative electronic charge. In discussions of synthetic methods in organic chemistry the hydroxyl group (–OH) is that are responsible for its solubility Solubility is the property of a solid, liquid, or gaseous chemical substance called solute to dissolve in a liquid solvent to form a homogeneous solution of the solute in the solvent. The solubility of a substance fundamentally depends on the used solvent as well as on temperature and pressure. The extent of the solubility of a substance in a in water Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state, ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam and its hygroscopic Hygroscopy is the ability of a substance to attract water molecules from the surrounding environment through either absorption or adsorption nature. The glycerol substructure In mathematical logic, an substructure or (induced) subalgebra is a structure whose domain is a subset of that of a bigger structure, and whose functions and relations are the traces of the functions and relations of the bigger structure. Some examples of subalgebras are subgroups, submonoids, subrings, subfields, subalgebras of algebras over a is a central component of many lipids Lipids are a broad group of naturally occurring molecules which includes fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins , monoglycerides, diglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include energy storage, as structural components of cell membranes, and as important signaling molecules. Glycerol is sweet-tasting and of low toxicity Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a substructure of the organism, such as a cell or an organ (organotoxicity), such as the liver (hepatotoxicity). By extension, the word may be.

Synthesis and production

Glycerol forms the backbone of triglycerides Triglyceride is an ester composed of a glycerol bound to three fatty acids. It is the main constituent of vegetable oil and animal fats, and can be produced by saponification Saponification is the hydrolysis of an ester under basic conditions to form an alcohol and the salt of a carboxylic acid . Saponification is commonly used to refer to the reaction of a metallic alkali (base) with a fat or oil to form soap. Saponifiable substances are those that can be converted into soap of animal fats, e.g. a byproduct of soap-making SOAP, originally defined as Simple Object Access Protocol, is a protocol specification for exchanging structured information in the implementation of Web Services in computer networks. It relies on eXtensible Markup Language as its message format, and usually relies on other Application Layer protocols (most notably Remote Procedure Call (RPC) and. It also is a byproduct of the production of biodiesel Biodiesel refers to a vegetable oil- or animal fat-based diesel fuel consisting of long-chain alkyl esters. Biodiesel is typically made by chemically reacting lipids (e.g., vegetable oil, animal fat (tallow)) with an alcohol via transesterification In organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the organic group R" of an ester with the organic group R' of an alcohol. These reactions are often catalyzed by the addition of an acid or base catalyst. The reaction can also accomplished with help of enzymes particularly lipases (E.C.3.1.1.3). Because of the emphasis on biodiesel, the market for glycerol is depressed, and the old epichlorohydrin Epichlorohydrin is an organochlorine compound and an epoxide. This is a colorless liquid with a pungent, garlic-like odor, insoluble in water, but miscible with most polar organic solvents. Epichlorohydrin is a highly reactive compound and is used in the production of glycerol, plastics, epoxy glues and resins, and elastomers. In contact with process for glycerol synthesis is no longer economical. Approximately 950,000 tons per annum are produced in the USA and Europe. Production will increase as the EU directive 2003/30/EC The Directive on the Promotion of the use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport, officially 2003/30/EC and popularly better known as the biofuels directive is a European Union directive for promoting the use of biofuels for EU transport. The directive entered into force in May 2003, and stipulates that national measures must be taken is implemented, which requires the replacement of 5.75% of petroleum fuels with biofuel Biofuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, and concern over greenhouse gas emissions from fossil across all Member States by 2010^[2].

Glycerol is also produced as a byproduct of refining of cooking and salad oils, and various brands (e.g, NOW) are sold to the retail market as "Pure Vegetable Source" glycerin, 100% pure, which is safe for ingestion.

Applications

Foods industry

In foods and beverages, glycerol serves as a humectant A humectant is a hygroscopic substance. It is often a molecule with several hydrophilic groups, most often hydroxyl groups, but amines and carboxyl groups, sometimes esterified, can be encountered as well; the affinity to form hydrogen bonds with molecules of water is crucial here, solvent and sweetener, and may help preserve foods. It is also used as filler in commercially prepared low-fat foods (e.g., cookies In the United States and Canada, a cookie is a small, flat-baked treat, usually containing fat, flour, eggs and sugar. In most English-speaking countries outside North America, the most common word for this is biscuit; in many regions both terms are used, while in others the two words have different meanings—a cookie is a plain bun in Scotland,), and as a thickening agent Thickening agents, or thickeners, are substances which, when added to an aqueous mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties, such as taste. They provide body, increase stability, and improve suspension of added ingredients. Thickening agents are often used as food additives and in cosmetics and personal in liqueurs A liqueur is an alcoholic beverage that has been flavored with fruit, herbs, nuts, spices, flowers, or cream and bottled with added sugar. Liqueurs are typically quite sweet; they are usually not aged for long but may have resting periods during their production to allow flavors to marry. Glycerol and water are used to preserve certain types of leaves. As a sugar substitute, it has approximately 27 calories per teaspoon and is 60 percent as sweet as sucrose Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. This white, odorless, crystalline powder has a pleasing, sweet taste. It is best known for its role in human nutrition. The molecule is a disaccharide derived from glucose and fructose with the molecular formula C12H22O11. About 150,000,000 tonnes are. Although it has about the same food energy Food energy is the amount of energy obtained from food that is available through cellular respiration as table sugar, it does not raise blood sugar The blood sugar concentration or blood glucose level is the amount of glucose present in the blood of a human or animal. Normally, in mammals the body maintains the blood glucose level at a reference range between about 3.6 and 5.8 mM (mmol/L, ie, millimoles/liter). It is tightly regulated as a part of metabolic homeostasis levels, nor does it feed the bacteria that form plaques and cause dental cavities. As a food additive, glycerol is labeled as E number E numbers are number codes for food additives that have been assessed for use within the European Union . They are commonly found on food labels throughout the European Union. Safety assessment and approval are the responsibility of the European Food Safety Authority. The numbering scheme follows that of the International Numbering System (INS) as E422.

Glycerol is also used to manufacture mono- and di-glycerides Glycerides, more correctly known as acylglycerols, are esters formed from glycerol and fatty acids for use as emulsifiers An emulsion is a mixture of two or more immiscible (unblendable) liquids. Emulsions are part of a more general class of two-phase systems of matter called colloids. Although the terms colloid and emulsion are sometimes used interchangeably, emulsion tends to imply that both the dispersed and the continuous phase are liquid. In an emulsion, one, as well as polyglycerol esters Esters are chemical compounds derived by reacting an oxoacid with a hydroxyl compound such as an alcohol or phenol. Esters are usually derived from an inorganic acid or organic acid in which at least one -OH (hydroxyl) group is replaced by an -O-alkyl (alkoxy) group, and most commonly from carboxylic acids and alcohols. Basically, esters are going into shortenings Shortening is a semisolid fat used in food preparation, especially baked goods, and is so called because it promotes a "short" or crumbly texture . Shortening is fat or lard from an animal or vegetable. The term "shortening" can be used more broadly to apply to any fat that is used for baking and which is solid at room and margarine Margarine , as a generic term, can indicate any of a wide range of butter substitutes. In many parts of the world, the market share of margarine and spreads has overtaken that of butter. Margarine is an ingredient in the preparation of many foods and, in recipes and colloquially, is sometimes called oleo.

It is also used as a humectant A humectant is a hygroscopic substance. It is often a molecule with several hydrophilic groups, most often hydroxyl groups, but amines and carboxyl groups, sometimes esterified, can be encountered as well; the affinity to form hydrogen bonds with molecules of water is crucial here (along with propylene glycol Propylene glycol, also called 1,2-propanediol or propane-1,2-diol, is an organic compound with formula C3H8O2 or HO-CH2-CHOH-CH3. It is a colorless, nearly odorless, clear, viscous liquid with a faintly sweet taste, hygroscopic and miscible with water, acetone, and chloroform labelled as E1520 and/or E422) in the production of snus Snus is a moist powder tobacco product originated from a variant of dry snuff, in the early 19th century in Sweden, consumed by placing it under the lip for extended periods of time. However, the precursor of snus, the dry form of snuff inhaled through the nose, was introduced in Europe much earlier. Snus is a form of snuff that is used in a, a Swedish style snuff that the Swedish government subjects to the same regulations as "food" because it is used orally.

Categorization

Glycerol is currently categorized by the American Dietetic Association as a carbohydrate. The U.S. FDA carbohydrate designation includes all caloric macronutrients excluding protein and fat. Glycerin has a caloric density similar to table sugar, but a lower glycemic index The glycemic index, glycaemic index, or GI is a measure of the effects of carbohydrates on blood sugar levels.[citation needed] Carbohydrates that break down quickly during digestion and release glucose rapidly into the bloodstream have a high GI; carbohydrates that break down more slowly, releasing glucose more gradually into the bloodstream, and different metabolic pathway within the body, so some dietary advocates^[who?] accept glycerin as a sweetener compatible with low carbohydrate diets.

Organic chemistry

In organic synthesis Organic synthesis is a special branch of chemical synthesis and is concerned with the construction of organic compounds via organic reactions. Organic molecules can often contain a higher level of complexity compared to purely inorganic compounds, so the synthesis of organic compounds has developed into one of the most important branches of, glycerol is used as a readily available prochiral In stereochemistry, prochiral molecules are those that can be converted from achiral to chiral in a single step building block. Even if glycerol with no substitutions is symmetrical, and carbon atoms 1 and 3 are exchangeable, once one of them forms an ester or ether bond, the two are no longer exchangeable. Further bond formation and lysis Lysis refers to the breaking down of a cell, often by viral, enzymic or osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a "lysate" may lead to products substituted solely at the third carbon; due to such circumstances, to maintain both full description and conformance to the chemistry naming rules (which require carbon counting to minimize ordinal numbers of substituents), the carbons are named sn-1, sn-2, and sn-3, with "sn" standing for "sterospecifical numbering".^[3]

Physical properties

Like ethylene glycol Ethylene glycol is an organic compound widely used as an automotive antifreeze and a precursor to polymers. In its pure form, it is an odorless, colorless, syrupy, sweet-tasting liquid. Ethylene glycol is toxic, and ingestion can result in death and propylene glycol Propylene glycol, also called 1,2-propanediol or propane-1,2-diol, is an organic compound with formula C3H8O2 or HO-CH2-CHOH-CH3. It is a colorless, nearly odorless, clear, viscous liquid with a faintly sweet taste, hygroscopic and miscible with water, acetone, and chloroform, glycerol dissolved in water disrupts the hydrogen bonding A hydrogen bond is the attractive interaction of a hydrogen atom with an electronegative atom, such as nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine . The hydrogen must be covalently bonded to another electronegative atom to create the bond. These bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecularly), or within different parts of a single molecule (intramolecularly) between water molecules such that the mixture cannot form a stable crystal structure unless the temperature is significantly lowered. The minimum freezing point temperature is at about -36 °F / -37.8 °C corresponding to 60-70 % glycerol in water, as shown in the table below. Thus, glycerol has anti-freeze properties.

Foams and polymers

Glycerol is one of the major raw materials for the manufacture of polyol Polyols are alcohols containing multiple hydroxyl groups. In two technological disciplines the term "polyol" has a special meaning: food science and polymer chemistry-based flexible foams, and to a lesser extent rigid polyurethane A polyurethane is any polymer consisting of a chain of organic units joined by urethane (carbamate) links. Polyurethane polymers are formed through step-growth polymerization by reacting a monomer containing at least two isocyanate functional groups with another monomer containing at least two hydroxyl (alcohol) groups in the presence of a foams.

Nitroglycerine

Glycerol is used to produce nitroglycerin Nitroglycerin , (United States spelling) also known as nitroglycerine, (UK spelling), trinitroglycerin, trinitroglycerine, 1,2,3-trinitroxypropane and glyceryl trinitrate, is a heavy, colorless, oily, explosive liquid obtained by nitrating glycerol. Since the 1860s, it has been used as an active ingredient in the manufacture of explosives,, or glycerol-trinitrate (GTN), which is an essential ingredient of smokeless gunpowder Gunpowder, also called black powder, is a mixture of sulfur, charcoal, and potassium nitrate. Gunpowder can be made just using potassium nitrate and charcoal, but without the sulfur, the powder is not as strong. It burns rapidly, producing a volume of hot gas made up of carbon dioxide, water, and nitrogen, and a solid residue of potassium sulfide and various explosives such as dynamite Dynamite is an explosive material based on the explosive potential of nitroglycerin, initially using diatomaceous earth or another absorbent substance such as sawdust as an absorbent. It was invented by Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Krümmel (Geesthacht, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany), and patented in 1867, gelignite Gelignite, also known as blasting gelatin or simply jelly, is an explosive material consisting of collodion-cotton dissolved in nitroglycerine and mixed with wood pulp and saltpetre (sodium nitrate or potassium nitrate). Its composition makes it easily moldable and safe to handle without protection, as long as it is not near anything capable of and propellants like cordite Cordite is a family of smokeless propellants developed and produced in the United Kingdom from 1889 to replace gunpowder as a military propellant. Like gunpowder, cordite is classified as a low explosive because of its slow burning rates and consequently low brisance. These produce a subsonic deflagration wave rather than the supersonic detonation. Reliance on soap-making to supply co-product glycerine made it difficult to increase production to meet wartime demand. Hence, synthetic glycerin processes were national defence priorities in the days leading up to World War II. GTN is commonly used to relieve angina pectoris Angina pectoris, commonly known as angina, is severe chest pain due to ischemia of the heart muscle, generally due to obstruction or spasm of the coronary arteries (the heart's blood vessels). Coronary artery disease, the main cause of angina, is due to atherosclerosis of the cardiac arteries. The term derives from the Latin angina (", taken in the form of sub-lingual tablets, or as an aerosol spray.

Research laboratory usage

Glycerol is a common component of solvents for enzymatic reagents stored at temperatures below zero degrees Celsius due to the depression of the freezing temperature of solutions with high concentrations of glycerol. It is also dissolved in water to reduce damage by ice crystals to laboratory organisms that are stored in frozen solutions, such as bacteria, nematodes, and fruit flies. Samples are loaded into agarose gel electrophoresis mixed in loading buffers that mainly consist of glycerol; when the sample is injected into wells, the glycerol causes the solution to sink through the running buffer to the bottom of the well.

Glycerol is also used by manufacturers to condition dialysis membranes and must be completely washed out prior to use. This is particularly important when the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) has to be measured in solution afterward. This is the case for the laboratory studies on the complexation of radionuclides by humic substances.

Pharmaceutical, botanical manufacture and personal care applications

Glycerol is used in medical and pharmaceutical and personal care preparations, mainly as a means of improving smoothness, providing lubrication and as a humectant. It is found in cough syrups, elixirs and expectorants, toothpaste, mouthwashes, skin care products, shaving cream, hair care products, soaps and water based personal lubricants. In solid dosage forms like tablets, Glycerol is used as a tablet holding agent. It is also an ingredient in cigarettes that is used as a humectant. For human consumption, glycerol is classified by the U.S. FDA among the sugar alcohols as a caloric macronutrient.

When utilized in 'tincture' method extractions specifically, as a 10% solution, glycerol prevents tannins from precipitating in ethanol extracts of plants (tinctures). It is also used as a substitute for ethanol as a solvent in preparing herbal extractions. It is less extractive when utilized in tincture methodology and is approximately 30% more slowly absorbed by the body resulting in a much lower glycemic load. Fluid extract manufacturers often extract herbs in hot water before adding glycerin to make glycerites.^[4][5][6]

When used as a primary true alcohol-free botanical extraction solvent in innovative non-tincture based methodologies, Glycerol, as a glycerin and water base extractive solvent mix, has been shown, both in literature and through innovative extraction applications, to possess a high degree of extractive versatility for botanicals including removal of numerous constituents and complex compounds, often equal to or greater than that for ethanol. Glycerol is a stable preserving agent for botanical extracts that, when utilized in proper concentrations in an extraction solvent base, not only preserves safety and purity but does not allow inverting or REDOX of a finished extract's constituents over many years. Both Glycerol and ethanol are viable preserving agents. Glycerol is bacteriostatic in its action, and ethanol is bactericidal in its action. However, Glycerol possesses no secondary denaturing or inert rendering effects on a botanical extract's constituents, hence, Glycerol's preferred use in making many botanical extracts and use in pharmaceuticals where this quality is required.^[7][8][9]

Used as a laxative when introduced into the rectum in suppository or small-volume (2to10ml)(enema) form; irritates the anal mucosa and induces a hyperosmotic effect.

Glycerol is a component of glycerol soap, which is made from denatured alcohol, glycerol, sodium castorate (from castor), sodium cocoate, sodium tallowate, sucrose, and water. Sometimes one adds sodium laureth sulfate, or essential oils for fragrance. This kind of soap is used by people with sensitive, easily-irritated skin because it prevents skin dryness with its moisturizing properties. It draws moisture up through skin layers and slows or prevents excessive drying and evaporation. It is possible to make glycerol soap at home.

Topical pure or nearly pure glycerol is an effective treatment for psoriasis, burns, bites, cuts, rashes, bedsores, and calluses.^{[Needs footnote.]} It can be used orally to eliminate halitosis, as it is a contact bacterial desiccant.^{[Needs footnote.]} The same property makes it very helpful with periodontal disease; it penetrates biofilm quickly and eliminates bacterial colonies.^{[Needs footnote.]}

Alternative chemical and fuel feedstock

A great deal of research is being conducted to try to make value-added products from crude glycerol (typically containing 20 % water and residual esterification catalyst) obtained from biodiesel production, as an alternative to disposal by incineration.

• Hydrogen gas production unit^[10]
• Glycerine acetate (as a potential fuel additive)^[11]
• Conversion to propylene glycol^[12]
• Conversion to acrolein^[13][14]
• Conversion to ethanol^[15]
• Conversion to epichlorhydrin,^[16] a raw material for epoxy resins

Specialized and potential uses

• Glycerol is used for an evaporative fogging agent as an alternative to Propylene Glycol in some solutions for "electronic cigarette" use, mostly for those with a physiological sensitivity or other health concerns.
• It is also used in de-icing/anti-icing fluids, as in vitrification of blood cells for storage in liquid nitrogen.
• In motion-picture production, glycerol is used as a non-evaporating substitute for perspiration or tears on actors. It is also used in some types of stage blood.
• Compost additive
• For tincture extraction and preservation of essential oils and chemicals from herbs
• Citric acid production
• Cosmetic bonding agent for makeup, including: eye shadow, lipstick, lipgloss, lotions and eyedrops
• Glycerol may be used as antifreeze for plants, if mixed with water in a 10 percent solution. It is believed to be effective at temperatures near -18 °C^{[dubious – discuss]}
• Glycerol can also be used as a bodybuilding supplement to increase nitric oxide (NO) uptake in the muscles and act in a similar way to the amino acid arginine to create swelling in the working muscle for the individual
• Glycerin, when poured on potassium permanganate, will combust making it a useful firelighting tool.
• Glycerine is used as an anti-drying agent in watercolor paints.
• Glycerine is used as a preservative to keep tobacco mixture for use in hookahs moist.

Metabolism

Glycerol is a precursor for synthesis of triacylglycerols and of phospholipids in the liver and adipose tissue. When the body uses stored fat as a source of energy, glycerol and fatty acids are released into the bloodstream. In some organisms, the glycerol component can be converted into glucose by the liver and, thus, provide energy for cellular metabolism . In animals, wherein glycerol is derived from glucose (e.g., humans and other mammals), glycerol is sometimes not considered a true gluconeogenic substrate, as it cannot be used to generate new glucose.

Before glycerol can enter the pathway of glycolysis or gluconeogenesis (depending on physiological conditions), it must be converted to their intermediate glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate in the following steps:

The enzyme glycerol kinase is present only in the liver. In adipose tissue, glycerol 3-phosphate is obtained from dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) with the enzyme glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase.

Historical cases of contamination with diethylene glycol

On May 4, 2007, the US Food and Drug Administration advised all US makers of medicines to test all batches of glycerine for the toxic diethylene glycol.^[17] This follows an occurrence of 100 fatal poisonings in Panama resulting from a Chinese factory deliberately falsifying records in order to export the cheaper diethylene glycol as the more expensive glycerol.^[18] Glycerine and diethylene glycol are similar in appearance, smell, and taste. The US Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act was passed following the 1937 "Elixir Sulfanilamide" incident of poisoning caused by diethylene glycol contamination of medicine.

Additional physical properties

Its surface tension is 64.00 mN/m at 20 °C , and it has a temperature coefficient of -0.0598 mN/(m K).^{[citation needed]}

See also

• Biodiesel by-product
• Epichlorohydrin
• Nitroglycerin
• Oleochemicals
• Saponification
• Transesterification

References

• U.S. Health.gov dietary guidelines

1. ^ Lide, D. R., Ed. CRC Handbook of Data on Organic Compounds, 3rd ed.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, 1994; p 4386.
2. ^ The Glycerol Challenge
3. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=hjrcWquBnusC&pg=PA48&lpg=PA48&dq=sn+glycerol+isomer
4. ^ Walter S. Long. The Composition of Commercial Fruit Extracts Transactions of the Kansas Academy of Science (1903-), Vol. 28, Jan. 14, 1916 - Jan. 13, 1917 (Jan. 14, 1916 - Jan. 13, 1917), pp. 157-161 doi:10.2307/3624347
5. ^ David Winston www.herbaltherapeutics.com
6. ^ Does Alcohol Belong In Herbal Tinctures?
7. ^ GLYCEROL AND THE GLYCOLS – Production, Properties and Analysis by, James W. Lawrie, Ph.D. (1928 The Chemical Catalog Company, Inc., New York, NY)
8. ^ GLYCERIN – Its Industrial and Commercial Applications, by Georgia Leffingwell, Ph.D. and Miton Lesser, B.S. (1945 Chemical Pubishing Co., Inc., Brooklyn, NY)
9. ^ The Manufacture of GLYCEROL – Vol. III (1956 The Technical Press, LTD., London, UK)
10. ^ A. T. Marshall and R. G. Haverkamp (2008). "Production of hydrogen by the electrochemical reforming of glycerol-water solutions in a PEM electrolysis cell". International Journal of Hydrogen Energy 33 (17): 4649–4654. doi:10.1016/j.ijhydene.2008.05.029.
11. ^ J. A. Melero, R. vanGrieken, G. Morales and M. Paniagua (2007). "Acidic mesoporous silica for the acetylation of glycerol: Synthesis of bioadditives to petrol fuel". Energy Fuels 21 (3): 1782–1791. doi:10.1021/ef060647q.
12. ^ Dow Chemical Company (15 March 2007). "Dow achieves another major milestone in its quest for sustainable chemistries". Press release. http://www.dow.com/propyleneglycol/news/20070315b.htm.
13. ^ L. Ott, M. Bicker and H. Vogel (2006). "The catalytic dehydration of glycerol in sub- and supercritical water: a new chemical process for acrolein production". Green Chemistry 8 (2): 214–220. doi:10.1039/b506285c.
14. ^ Watanabe, M. et al. (2007). "Acrolein synthesis from glycerol in hot-compressed water". Bioresource Technology 98 (6): 1285–1290. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2006.05.007. PMID 16797980.
15. ^ S. S. Yazdani and R. Gonzalez (2007). "Anaerobic fermentation of glycerol: a path to economic viability for the biofuels industry". Current Opinion in Biotechnology 18 (3): 213–219. doi:10.1016/j.copbio.2007.05.002. PMID 17532205. Lay summary – ScienceDaily (27 Jun 2007).
16. ^ Dow Chemical Company (26 March 2007). "Dow Epoxy advances glycerine-to-epichlorohydrin and liquid epoxy resins projects by choosing Shanghai site". Press release. http://epoxy.dow.com/epoxy/news/2007/20070326b.htm.
17. ^ U.S. Food and Drug Administration. "FDA Advises Manufacturers to Test Glycerin for Possible Contamination." Released May 4, 2007. Last retrieved May 8, 2007.
18. ^ Walt Bogdanich. "From China to Panama, a Trail of Poisoned Medicine." New York Times. Published: May 6, 2007. Last retrieved May 8, 2007.

External links

• Glycerol on BioChemInfo.org
• Absolute alcohol using glycerol

Categories: Polyols | Food additives | Household chemicals | Cosmetic chemicals | Alcohol solvents | Laxatives | Glassforming liquids and melts | Demulcents

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